PROJECT IN BRIEF
The Blue Economy CRC has partnered with the University of Wollongong to conduct baseline social, economic and cultural research to underpin the future development of kelp and mussel aquaculture on the south coast of New South Wales.
This project is examining the potential to further develop nature-based, feed-free aquaculture on the south coast of NSW, with a particular focus on kelp and shellfish farming.
We are working alongside existing aquaculture proponents, stakeholders and Indigenous rights holders, as well as members of the community to explore and unpack the opportunities for the development of kelp and mussel farming aquaculture in the local area. This will include an examination of potential social and economic benefits and impacts associated with the growth of this industry.
The project is a partnership between the Blue Economy CRC and the University of Wollongong (UOW) and will inform the development of environmental impact assessments for proposed kelp and aquaculture farms in the region.
FINAL PROJECT REPORTS
SUMMARY REPORT: SNAPSHOT | UNLOCKING REGENERATIVE AQUACULTURE IN NSW SOUTH COAST
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR REGENERATIVE AQUACULTURE ON THE NSW SOUTH COAST
FIRST NATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR REGENERATIVE AQUACULTURE ON THE NSW SOUTH COAST
COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FOR REGENERATIVE AQUACULTURE ON THE NSW SOUTH COAST
REGENERATIVE AQUACULTURE FARMING ON THE NSW SOUTH COAST: INVESTIGATION OF BUSINESS CLUSTER
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
The University of Wollongong (UOW) and the Blue Economy Cooperative Research Centre (BE CRC) are collaborating with the NSW Government and industry to identify social, cultural and economic impacts and opportunities that may be associated with future development of a regenerative aquaculture industry on the South Coast of NSW.
The BECRC is the project lead and has partnered with UOW to undertake baseline research that can inform current and future development of this industry. In particular, the research is exploring how Indigenous, community and economic values can inform the emerging seaweed farming sector and evolving shellfish farming in waters off the NSW south coast.
The questions this research aims to answer include:
- What impacts and benefits do local communities want to see considered or prioritised when new regenerative aquaculture activities are proposed?
- How can Aboriginal cultural values, rights and interests be protected, enhanced or prioritised as this new industry develops?
- How would local communities like to participate in current and future planning processes?
- What are the local business networks, supply chains and markets that the industry could engage with?
The project focuses on the entire NSW South Coast and incorporates a range of different forms of aquaculture, including kelp and mussel farming. The project is focused on how local communities are likely to respond to the development of these new and emerging industries in these waters.
The project includes case studies which allow the research team to observe and record the experiences of both industry and the community and capture live sentiment to help inform the development of an industry wide report. These case studies involve in depth analysis of the process being undertaken by two proponents:
- Sea Health Products – who have two proposed ocean lease areas to grow golden kelp in the Bermagui and Pambula area.
- Auskelp – who has a proposed ocean lease to grow golden kelp in Disaster Bay, south of Eden.
The project was co-developed by UOW and BECRC to consider broad scale regional factors influencing the development of a South Coast regenerative aquaculture industry.
The project is overseen by a Regional Development Working Party that includes Regional Development NSW (as project funders), the NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI), UOW, the BECRC and industry proponents. This committee provides input and advice on the project delivery and operational factors but do not have direct input into the research itself. The research design and methods have been developed independently by UOW.
The project requires regular engagement with existing and emerging industry proponents to understand their engagement, research and operational processes and how they have developed their proposals for government. The companies involved do not have direct access to the research data we collect. At the completion of the project, industry, government and community will have access to the report(s) prepared as a result of this research, which will be publicly available.
The research does not replace individual assessments required under NSW Planning legislation. Each industry proponent will still need to undertake a full Environmental Impact Assessment of their proposals in accordance with the State Significant Development approvals pathways. The research will, however, provide important information and insights for industry proponents to consider when preparing their individual environmental and social impact assessments. For example, the research outputs will include recommendations for proponents on community consultation, social impact assessment and Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Assessments.
This research is funded by the NSW Government under the Regional NSW – Business Case and Strategy Development Fund – Round 1.
Considering the perspectives of First Nation communities is a priority focus area of this project. This is being considered in two ways. The first is through formal Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Assessments for the three case study sites (in order to investigate the potential for underwater cultural heritage in these areas). This is being undertaken by a third-party consultant, Biosis.
The second is through consultations and discussions with First Nation representatives, with support from the NSW Government’s Aboriginal Partnerships Manager, South East and Tablelands. The aim of these consultations is to identify how First Nation communities would like to be engaged in future discussions about the development of this industry. Recommendations on culturally appropriate engagement with First Nations over individual sites will be recorded and made available to existing and future project proponents as part of the project outputs. As the project continues to roll out, we have been actively adapting our engagement to ensure it meets First Nation community expectations and we acknowledge that this will be ongoing.
Regenerative ocean aquaculture is defined by Mizuta et al. (2023, p. 133) as ‘commercial or subsistence aquaculture performed with focus on social and economic and ecological responsibility and stability, with minimal external input and impact to the environment’. Regenerative ocean aquaculture might include emerging and existing types of aquaculture such as seaweed (golden kelp, green seaweed and red seaweed) and shellfish farming (oysters and mussels) (Theuerkauf et al. 2022; Visch et al. 2023). These types of farms rely on nature to provide the feed needed for the products to grow, so they do not require feed inputs and there is no addition of pesticides or fertilisers. As seaweed is a photosynthesis feeder and shellfish are filter feeders, these aquaculture processes may also assist in improving water quality and provide habitat for other marine species. Regenerative ocean farming may also be improved by farming multiple species in one place, such as seaweed (or kelp), oysters, clams and mussels. It can therefore be an efficient use of space.
Kelp farming has been observed to reduce the levels of nutrients within the water column, which can result in improvements in water quality, especially when located in areas where high nutrient loads are associated with issues like algal blooms and eutrophication (Hasselström et al 2018, Campbell et al 2019). Shellfish aquaculture can put extra nitrogen into the ecosystem and can change local ecology, however when located in areas where tidal movements allow for regular flushing of water, the impacts of this is minimal (Würsig and Gailey, 2002). Co-locating shellfish farms with seaweed aquaculture is a growing area of scientific interest, as this might also assist in maintaining water quality (Buck et al 2017, Stenton-Dozey et al 2021).
Kelp does absorb carbon through photosynthesis by using sunlight to create energy, exactly as trees and plants do. However, the long term storage or sequestration of this captured carbon remains an area of complex and ongoing research (Hurd, et al. 2022, Ross et al 2023). Options include ‘sinking’ kelp at depth to lock up the carbon, and more indirect means of sequestration by providing an alternative to more carbon intensive products. For example, it can be used as a feedstock for cattle that requires less resource intensive farming than other sources of feed such as grain (Costello et al. 2020). There is also potential for seaweed to be used in the production of renewable energy through seaweed as a biogas (Demel, Longo and Mariel 2020) and bioplastics (Visch et al. 2023).
While it is recognised that seaweed farming does hold potential as a carbon neutral or even carbon positive future industry, more research is required to fully understand and measure the carbon storage potential of kelp and other forms of regenerative aquaculture.
Evidence suggests that regenerative aquaculture can have multiple benefits for marine ecosystems and biodiversity in some circumstances (Mizuta et al. 2022, Barrett et al 2022, Theuerkauf et al. 2022). As a core principle regenerative aquaculture seeks to maintain a healthy environment throughout the farming process and seeks to have net benefits to marine ecosystems (Mizuta et al. 2022). While the benefits are likely to vary between shellfish and seaweed aquaculture (Theuerkauf et al. 2022; Forbes et al. 2022), potential ecological benefits of regenerative aquaculture might include improvements in water quality and nutrient removal (Gentry et al. 2020), the mitigation of acidification of the ocean on a local level (Mongin et al. 2016), and habitat provision for fish and mobile invertebrates (Theuerkauf et al. 2022; Forbes et al. 2022).
One potential contribution of particular interest on the NSW South Coast is the role that kelp farms might play in restoration and regeneration of degraded ecosystems (Layton et al. 2020; Filbee-Dexter et al. 2022). Wild kelp forests play a significant role in maintaining ecosystem health, but are under threat from a variety of stressors in many parts of Australia (Wernberg et al. 2019; Layton et al. 2020). Significant concerns have also been raised by Traditional Owners and members of the scientific and broader community about the decline of kelp forests off the NSW coast in recent years (Stewart 2020, Andrew 2022). The kelp farms proposed on the NSW South Coast will farm the local native species of kelp, Ecklonia radiata, and it is hoped that these farmed kelp may assist in maintaining local kelp forest health by providing increased reproductive ‘seed’ in the natural environment (Layton et al. 2020; Filbee-Dexter et al. 2022, Forbes et al. 2022).
The south coast of NSW is a whale migration area and proponents must give consideration to the location of their farms and the timing of installation of infrastructure and risk of entanglement. Each proponent must establish protocols for monitoring and reporting interactions with marine mammals. This is core part of the government assessment and approvals process. Across Australia, aquaculture companies and governments have much experience in this, including through the development of industry and company wildlife management plans and standards and compulsory disclosure.
More broadly, research has shown that documented cases of marine mammal, turtle, shark, and seabird interactions with aquaculture infrastructure are rare (Bath et al. 2023). Globally, there have not been any recorded cases of a whales, dolphins or seals being trapped or entangled in a kelp or seaweed farm.
NSW has strict biosecurity laws that protect current wild ecosystems for the importation of foreign species. Kelp farmers in NSW are only permitted to use seedstock from locally sourced wild kelp. This practice ensures that no new kelp species are introduced into NSW waters. Because there is no introduced, feed, pesticides or fertilisers added there is a very low risk of contamination (Campbell 2019).
There is some evidence to suggest that regenerative aquaculture (particularly in relation to shellfish systems) can mitigate wave energy, which may assist in minimizing coastal erosion processes (van der shatte et al. 2020). Similarly, very large areas of kelp forest or farmed kelp can also influence local currents in some circumstances, but these effects are variable and complex (Zhang et al. 2020; Wright et al. 2022).
Marine aquaculture leases in NSW must be located above a sandy substrate, with no reefs or rock shelves present within the lease area. Coastal process modelling, and experiences from existing aquaculture farms, show that correctly designed infrastructure should not cause erosion or negatively affect the seafloor.
Under the NSW regulatory approval process, aquaculture approvals must be accompanied by an environmental impact survey EIS that details the coastal processes and currents of the area and the expected effects on hydrology cause by ocean farm infrastructure.
Regenerative aquaculture has been seen to have positive social and economic benefits in other places. For example, there are examples of employment and livelihood benefits (Spillias et al. 2023), gender equity in fisheries and aquaculture (McClenachan and Moulton 2022), social cohesion (Spillias et al. 2023) and enhanced community wellbeing (Campbell et al. 2021). Furthermore, food security and nutrition benefits have been documented, particularly in the global south. Seaweed is consumed in many places in the world and there is increasing recognition that it plays an important role in human health (Rimmer et al. 2021). Research suggests that kelp, seaweed and shellfish will become increasingly important sources of protein in the future (Lindell and Kite-Powell 2021). Seaweed contains essential omega 3 fatty acids and micronutrients that contribute to food and nutrition security (Costello et al. 2019).
Seaweed and kelp aquaculture is the fastest growing aquaculture sector globally and there is potential for significant growth in the sector (Costello et al. 2019). The World Bank estimates that farming seaweed in 0.1% of the world’s oceans has the capacity to create approximately 50 million jobs directly, with a further 100 million indirect jobs (Bjerragaard et al. 2016).
In Australia, an FRDC funded study conducted an investigation on the economic and social contribution of the aquaculture industry (Barclay et al 2016). In the 2016/17 financial year aquaculture contributed: – $100 million of added value – $56 million of household income – 988 full time jobs. It found that aquaculture supports opportunities from on-the-farm work through to associated businesses, including those providing inputs; in transport, processing and sale; and tourism and hospitality operations. Farms require diverse and often high-level skills, but also provide entry-level jobs. Aquaculture farms diversify economic opportunity in regional towns, which is critical for resilience. They generate jobs in places where there are few alternative industries. They provide economic stability by being active through the year, versus seasonal work such as tourism.
Regenerative aquaculture largely occurs underwater, with some surface buoys visible. The below image shows a typical kelp aquaculture rig that would be used for Australian kelp species like that proposed in NSW. The number of surface buoys are kept to a minimum by adding floats to the cultivation line which would be suspended 3 – 5 meters below the surface to keep the kelp out of the wave zone, exactly as they are in the wild. The proposed farms would be located between 400 – 800m from the shoreline in water depths ranging between 20 meters to 35 metres deep. The ocean lease would be marked by corner-markers with flashing lights to assist with night-time navigation of passing ships and boats.
Offshore aquaculture farms area accessed via vessels, which are normally berthed or moored at nearby safe harbours or marinas. It is a requirement of the lease conditions that the aquaculture farms do not exclude other users, so fishers, boaters and other marine users may still have access to the lease area provided they do not disrupt aquaculture operations.
Kelp is very strong, but despite this kelp can be dislodged and break free if the ocean conditions are extreme enough; exactly as it does in the wild. Dislodged kelp will either wash up on the beach or be washed into deeper water, thereby trapping the stored carbon. The ocean rig designs are engineered to cater for 1-in-100-year storm events with the kelp at their maximum biomass. Using screw anchors, multiple lines are screwed into the sand floor in a catenary design to spread the load in different directions and these methods are very stable and have been proven over many decades. Consideration of how to avoid and manage dislodgement of infrastructure will be an important component of the planning approvals process.
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RELATED NEWS
October 2023 Progress Update
A research workshop and information session was held in Bermagui NSW in late July with community, Indigenous rights holders and other marine estate users to understand what matters to them when it comes to growing the blue economy, and what is needed to address community sentiment and grow community support for regenerative aquaculture opportunities in the local area.
“Our role in this collaboration is to conduct research which will explore how communities feel about these new activities, and identify how these businesses can work with local residents to share the benefits of the developments and address any areas of concern,” Project Lead Dr Michelle Voyer.
Introduction to aquaculture in NSW
Aquaculture is a critical industry for Australia’s Blue Economy, with significant opportunities for growth. The National Aquaculture Strategy aims to double the current value of Australia’s aquaculture industry, and the National Marine Science Plan 2015-2025 highlights the importance of aquaculture in driving the development of Australia’s Blue Economy.
Within New South Wales (NSW) there are 3200 aquaculture leases over a total current area of about 4300 hectares. These are administered by the NSW Department of Primary Industries and employ many different techniques, all of which take place on selected sites. Aquaculture has been estimated to contribute over $220m and nearly 1800 jobs to regional economies in NSW.
There are many different types of aquaculture. These are often classified into two categories.
- Fed or intensive (or semi-intensive) aquaculture are types of aquaculture where food be is added to the production or there are other interventions in the growing process, such as water aeration. Common types of intensive aquaculture include fish and prawn farming.
- Non-intensive, feed free aquaculture is often referred to as regenerative aquaculture. This type of aquaculture allows the stock to grow on its own, using natural food sources and conditions, and is common for farming shellfish (such as oysters) and seaweed. The term regenerative refers to the potential of this type of farming to provide environmental benefits. For example, filter feeders can assist in improving water quality and seaweed farms can provide habitat for other marine species. Regenerative aquaculture farms may also contribute to carbon storage.
[Source 1: DPI]
TYPES OF REGENERATIVE AQUACULTURE
Seaweed farming
Seaweed aquaculture in Australia is a promising industry with a wide range of potential uses such as food, fertilisers, agricultural feed, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and bioplastics. Seaweed can be grown with minimal environmental impact and in fact can have many positive environmental benefits. Seaweed ocean farms require no addition of feed, freshwater or fertiliser and there is no waste from marine plants, making it one of the most sustainable forms of agriculture on the planet.
Seaweed farms consist of anchors, longlines and growlines, and look very similar to a mussel farm. Seaweed spores (collected from near the farm location) are grown in a hatchery on twine before being out-planted onto growlines. These lines are usually laid out approximately 1.5 km from the shore at sufficient depth to ensure the seaweed does not touch the bottom and to reduce the amount of biofouling. The substrate is often sandy as this is a good holding ground for moorings.
Mussel farming
In Australia, mussel farming is a relatively new venture undertaken in embayments of the southern states. A number of species are cultured around the world, the blue mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) is the only marine mussel species farmed in Australia. Although the blue mussel in Australia is similar to and shares the same scientific name with the one from southern Europe, it is native to Australia and has been found in ancient Aboriginal middens. [Source 5]
Wild caught and hatchery reared spat settle on special spat ropes and allowed to grow before being mechanically stripped from the ropes, graded and reseeded to culture rope. The time it takes for mussels to reach market size from spat varies between regions. Mussels grown on the NSW South Coast are renowned for their generous size and take a little over one year to grow. Mussels are filter-feeders and grow naturally on plankton circulated by the joining of warm water from the East Australian Current and nutrient rich cooler water from the Bass Strait. (http://southcoastmariculture.com.au/mariculture)
The infrastructure and methods associated with mussel farming are complementary to seaweed farming, therefore it is possible to co-locate these species within the one farm.
What future aquaculture is proposed for the NSW South Coast?
Currently the only form of aquaculture on the NSW South Coast is a healthy and vibrant oyster industry, as well as two existing mussel farms in Jervis Bay and Eden.
In NSW new aquaculture developments are assessed as State Significant Developments, meaning they need to undertake a range of rigorous environmental, social, cultural and technical assessments to gain approval. The nature and scope of these assessments is defined by a dedicated set of Secretary’s Environmental Assessment Requirements (SEARS) specific to each project.
At present SEARS have been issued for two businesses seeking to establish seaweed farms in three lease areas in Bermagui, Pambula and Eden (see map). An additional three leases have been identified as sites for future regenerative aquaculture businesses with plans for these sites still in under development.
Proponents
Sea Health Products
Sea Health Products is a family company based in Tilba which harvests seaweed that is washed up on local beaches. The seaweed is dried and processed into powder or granules that can be made into fresh organic products. While demand for kelp products is growing, supplies of kelp have declined. In response Sea Health have developed a proposal for two kelp farms in Bermagui (Haywards Beach) and Pambula (Merimbula Bay).
Bermagui
Pambula
AusKelp
Auskelp Pty Ltd seeks to create an environmentally positive and sustainable seaweed aquaculture industry located within the Bega Valley Shire. AusKelp Pty Ltd is wholly Australian owned and operated. Using the latest technology, research and expert advisors, Auskelp plans to develop commercial kelp farms in the Bega Valley Shire that create a new and innovative industry, while protecting the pristine Sapphire Coast. Auskelp Pty Ltd is seeking approval for the development of a 200-hectare seaweed aquaculture marine farm on aquaculture lease area within Disaster Bay, off Wonboyn.
Eden
Why develop regenerative aquaculture on the NSW South Coast?
Seaweed is a low-impact, carbon negative crop and can be used for wide variety of purposes from nutrient rich food, bio-fuel, methane-reducing food source for cattle, bio-plastic, and cosmetic and medical products. It is estimated that in Southern NSW Seaweed could generate $50M annual gross value of production, 500 jobs and improve water quality and provide habitat for marine life.
Co-locating seaweed with mussels has the potential to further enhance food security and grow a thriving blue economy.
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Sources
- https://www.agriculture.gov.au/agriculture-land/fisheries/aquaculture
- https://www.frdc.com.au/seaweed-aquaculture-australia
- https://www.australianseaweedinstitute.com.au/why-seaweed
- https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/aquaculture/about-aquaculture
- https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/aquaculture/publications/species-saltwater/blue-mussel-aquaculture-prospects
- https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/content/research/areas/aquaculture/outputs/2001/output-168
- https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/aquaculture/publications/oysters/oyster-industry-in-nsw
- https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/fisheries-research/aquaculture-research/molluscan-aquaculture
- https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/aquaculture/publications/oysters/industry-strategy
- https://www.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/major-projects/projects/seaweed-aquaculture-lease-disaster-bay-eden-1-0
- https://www.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/major-projects/projects/seaweed-farming-aquaculture-bermagui-and-pambulansw
This project was successful at securing funds from the NSW Government.
The Blue Economy CRC has partnered with the University of Wollongong to conduct baseline social, economic and cultural research to underpin the future development of kelp and mussel aquaculture on the south coast of New South Wales.
This project is examining the potential to further develop nature-based, feed-free aquaculture on the south coast of NSW, with a particular focus on kelp and shellfish farming.
We are working alongside existing aquaculture proponents, stakeholders and Indigenous rights holders, as well as members of the community to explore and unpack the opportunities for the development of kelp and mussel farming aquaculture in the local area. This will include an examination of potential social and economic benefits and impacts associated with the growth of this industry.
The project is a partnership between the Blue Economy CRC and the University of Wollongong (UOW) and will inform the development of environmental impact assessments for proposed kelp and aquaculture farms in the region.
FINAL PROJECT REPORTS
SUMMARY REPORT: SNAPSHOT | UNLOCKING REGENERATIVE AQUACULTURE IN NSW SOUTH COAST
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR REGENERATIVE AQUACULTURE ON THE NSW SOUTH COAST
FIRST NATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR REGENERATIVE AQUACULTURE ON THE NSW SOUTH COAST
COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FOR REGENERATIVE AQUACULTURE ON THE NSW SOUTH COAST
REGENERATIVE AQUACULTURE FARMING ON THE NSW SOUTH COAST: INVESTIGATION OF BUSINESS CLUSTER
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
The University of Wollongong (UOW) and the Blue Economy Cooperative Research Centre (BE CRC) are collaborating with the NSW Government and industry to identify social, cultural and economic impacts and opportunities that may be associated with future development of a regenerative aquaculture industry on the South Coast of NSW.
The BECRC is the project lead and has partnered with UOW to undertake baseline research that can inform current and future development of this industry. In particular, the research is exploring how Indigenous, community and economic values can inform the emerging seaweed farming sector and evolving shellfish farming in waters off the NSW south coast.
The questions this research aims to answer include:
- What impacts and benefits do local communities want to see considered or prioritised when new regenerative aquaculture activities are proposed?
- How can Aboriginal cultural values, rights and interests be protected, enhanced or prioritised as this new industry develops?
- How would local communities like to participate in current and future planning processes?
- What are the local business networks, supply chains and markets that the industry could engage with?
The project focuses on the entire NSW South Coast and incorporates a range of different forms of aquaculture, including kelp and mussel farming. The project is focused on how local communities are likely to respond to the development of these new and emerging industries in these waters.
The project includes case studies which allow the research team to observe and record the experiences of both industry and the community and capture live sentiment to help inform the development of an industry wide report. These case studies involve in depth analysis of the process being undertaken by two proponents:
- Sea Health Products – who have two proposed ocean lease areas to grow golden kelp in the Bermagui and Pambula area.
- Auskelp – who has a proposed ocean lease to grow golden kelp in Disaster Bay, south of Eden.
The project was co-developed by UOW and BECRC to consider broad scale regional factors influencing the development of a South Coast regenerative aquaculture industry.
The project is overseen by a Regional Development Working Party that includes Regional Development NSW (as project funders), the NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI), UOW, the BECRC and industry proponents. This committee provides input and advice on the project delivery and operational factors but do not have direct input into the research itself. The research design and methods have been developed independently by UOW.
The project requires regular engagement with existing and emerging industry proponents to understand their engagement, research and operational processes and how they have developed their proposals for government. The companies involved do not have direct access to the research data we collect. At the completion of the project, industry, government and community will have access to the report(s) prepared as a result of this research, which will be publicly available.
The research does not replace individual assessments required under NSW Planning legislation. Each industry proponent will still need to undertake a full Environmental Impact Assessment of their proposals in accordance with the State Significant Development approvals pathways. The research will, however, provide important information and insights for industry proponents to consider when preparing their individual environmental and social impact assessments. For example, the research outputs will include recommendations for proponents on community consultation, social impact assessment and Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Assessments.
This research is funded by the NSW Government under the Regional NSW – Business Case and Strategy Development Fund – Round 1.
Considering the perspectives of First Nation communities is a priority focus area of this project. This is being considered in two ways. The first is through formal Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Assessments for the three case study sites (in order to investigate the potential for underwater cultural heritage in these areas). This is being undertaken by a third-party consultant, Biosis.
The second is through consultations and discussions with First Nation representatives, with support from the NSW Government’s Aboriginal Partnerships Manager, South East and Tablelands. The aim of these consultations is to identify how First Nation communities would like to be engaged in future discussions about the development of this industry. Recommendations on culturally appropriate engagement with First Nations over individual sites will be recorded and made available to existing and future project proponents as part of the project outputs. As the project continues to roll out, we have been actively adapting our engagement to ensure it meets First Nation community expectations and we acknowledge that this will be ongoing.
Regenerative ocean aquaculture is defined by Mizuta et al. (2023, p. 133) as ‘commercial or subsistence aquaculture performed with focus on social and economic and ecological responsibility and stability, with minimal external input and impact to the environment’. Regenerative ocean aquaculture might include emerging and existing types of aquaculture such as seaweed (golden kelp, green seaweed and red seaweed) and shellfish farming (oysters and mussels) (Theuerkauf et al. 2022; Visch et al. 2023). These types of farms rely on nature to provide the feed needed for the products to grow, so they do not require feed inputs and there is no addition of pesticides or fertilisers. As seaweed is a photosynthesis feeder and shellfish are filter feeders, these aquaculture processes may also assist in improving water quality and provide habitat for other marine species. Regenerative ocean farming may also be improved by farming multiple species in one place, such as seaweed (or kelp), oysters, clams and mussels. It can therefore be an efficient use of space.
Kelp farming has been observed to reduce the levels of nutrients within the water column, which can result in improvements in water quality, especially when located in areas where high nutrient loads are associated with issues like algal blooms and eutrophication (Hasselström et al 2018, Campbell et al 2019). Shellfish aquaculture can put extra nitrogen into the ecosystem and can change local ecology, however when located in areas where tidal movements allow for regular flushing of water, the impacts of this is minimal (Würsig and Gailey, 2002). Co-locating shellfish farms with seaweed aquaculture is a growing area of scientific interest, as this might also assist in maintaining water quality (Buck et al 2017, Stenton-Dozey et al 2021).
Kelp does absorb carbon through photosynthesis by using sunlight to create energy, exactly as trees and plants do. However, the long term storage or sequestration of this captured carbon remains an area of complex and ongoing research (Hurd, et al. 2022, Ross et al 2023). Options include ‘sinking’ kelp at depth to lock up the carbon, and more indirect means of sequestration by providing an alternative to more carbon intensive products. For example, it can be used as a feedstock for cattle that requires less resource intensive farming than other sources of feed such as grain (Costello et al. 2020). There is also potential for seaweed to be used in the production of renewable energy through seaweed as a biogas (Demel, Longo and Mariel 2020) and bioplastics (Visch et al. 2023).
While it is recognised that seaweed farming does hold potential as a carbon neutral or even carbon positive future industry, more research is required to fully understand and measure the carbon storage potential of kelp and other forms of regenerative aquaculture.
Evidence suggests that regenerative aquaculture can have multiple benefits for marine ecosystems and biodiversity in some circumstances (Mizuta et al. 2022, Barrett et al 2022, Theuerkauf et al. 2022). As a core principle regenerative aquaculture seeks to maintain a healthy environment throughout the farming process and seeks to have net benefits to marine ecosystems (Mizuta et al. 2022). While the benefits are likely to vary between shellfish and seaweed aquaculture (Theuerkauf et al. 2022; Forbes et al. 2022), potential ecological benefits of regenerative aquaculture might include improvements in water quality and nutrient removal (Gentry et al. 2020), the mitigation of acidification of the ocean on a local level (Mongin et al. 2016), and habitat provision for fish and mobile invertebrates (Theuerkauf et al. 2022; Forbes et al. 2022).
One potential contribution of particular interest on the NSW South Coast is the role that kelp farms might play in restoration and regeneration of degraded ecosystems (Layton et al. 2020; Filbee-Dexter et al. 2022). Wild kelp forests play a significant role in maintaining ecosystem health, but are under threat from a variety of stressors in many parts of Australia (Wernberg et al. 2019; Layton et al. 2020). Significant concerns have also been raised by Traditional Owners and members of the scientific and broader community about the decline of kelp forests off the NSW coast in recent years (Stewart 2020, Andrew 2022). The kelp farms proposed on the NSW South Coast will farm the local native species of kelp, Ecklonia radiata, and it is hoped that these farmed kelp may assist in maintaining local kelp forest health by providing increased reproductive ‘seed’ in the natural environment (Layton et al. 2020; Filbee-Dexter et al. 2022, Forbes et al. 2022).
The south coast of NSW is a whale migration area and proponents must give consideration to the location of their farms and the timing of installation of infrastructure and risk of entanglement. Each proponent must establish protocols for monitoring and reporting interactions with marine mammals. This is core part of the government assessment and approvals process. Across Australia, aquaculture companies and governments have much experience in this, including through the development of industry and company wildlife management plans and standards and compulsory disclosure.
More broadly, research has shown that documented cases of marine mammal, turtle, shark, and seabird interactions with aquaculture infrastructure are rare (Bath et al. 2023). Globally, there have not been any recorded cases of a whales, dolphins or seals being trapped or entangled in a kelp or seaweed farm.
NSW has strict biosecurity laws that protect current wild ecosystems for the importation of foreign species. Kelp farmers in NSW are only permitted to use seedstock from locally sourced wild kelp. This practice ensures that no new kelp species are introduced into NSW waters. Because there is no introduced, feed, pesticides or fertilisers added there is a very low risk of contamination (Campbell 2019).
There is some evidence to suggest that regenerative aquaculture (particularly in relation to shellfish systems) can mitigate wave energy, which may assist in minimizing coastal erosion processes (van der shatte et al. 2020). Similarly, very large areas of kelp forest or farmed kelp can also influence local currents in some circumstances, but these effects are variable and complex (Zhang et al. 2020; Wright et al. 2022).
Marine aquaculture leases in NSW must be located above a sandy substrate, with no reefs or rock shelves present within the lease area. Coastal process modelling, and experiences from existing aquaculture farms, show that correctly designed infrastructure should not cause erosion or negatively affect the seafloor.
Under the NSW regulatory approval process, aquaculture approvals must be accompanied by an environmental impact survey EIS that details the coastal processes and currents of the area and the expected effects on hydrology cause by ocean farm infrastructure.
Regenerative aquaculture has been seen to have positive social and economic benefits in other places. For example, there are examples of employment and livelihood benefits (Spillias et al. 2023), gender equity in fisheries and aquaculture (McClenachan and Moulton 2022), social cohesion (Spillias et al. 2023) and enhanced community wellbeing (Campbell et al. 2021). Furthermore, food security and nutrition benefits have been documented, particularly in the global south. Seaweed is consumed in many places in the world and there is increasing recognition that it plays an important role in human health (Rimmer et al. 2021). Research suggests that kelp, seaweed and shellfish will become increasingly important sources of protein in the future (Lindell and Kite-Powell 2021). Seaweed contains essential omega 3 fatty acids and micronutrients that contribute to food and nutrition security (Costello et al. 2019).
Seaweed and kelp aquaculture is the fastest growing aquaculture sector globally and there is potential for significant growth in the sector (Costello et al. 2019). The World Bank estimates that farming seaweed in 0.1% of the world’s oceans has the capacity to create approximately 50 million jobs directly, with a further 100 million indirect jobs (Bjerragaard et al. 2016).
In Australia, an FRDC funded study conducted an investigation on the economic and social contribution of the aquaculture industry (Barclay et al 2016). In the 2016/17 financial year aquaculture contributed: – $100 million of added value – $56 million of household income – 988 full time jobs. It found that aquaculture supports opportunities from on-the-farm work through to associated businesses, including those providing inputs; in transport, processing and sale; and tourism and hospitality operations. Farms require diverse and often high-level skills, but also provide entry-level jobs. Aquaculture farms diversify economic opportunity in regional towns, which is critical for resilience. They generate jobs in places where there are few alternative industries. They provide economic stability by being active through the year, versus seasonal work such as tourism.
Regenerative aquaculture largely occurs underwater, with some surface buoys visible. The below image shows a typical kelp aquaculture rig that would be used for Australian kelp species like that proposed in NSW. The number of surface buoys are kept to a minimum by adding floats to the cultivation line which would be suspended 3 – 5 meters below the surface to keep the kelp out of the wave zone, exactly as they are in the wild. The proposed farms would be located between 400 – 800m from the shoreline in water depths ranging between 20 meters to 35 metres deep. The ocean lease would be marked by corner-markers with flashing lights to assist with night-time navigation of passing ships and boats.
Offshore aquaculture farms area accessed via vessels, which are normally berthed or moored at nearby safe harbours or marinas. It is a requirement of the lease conditions that the aquaculture farms do not exclude other users, so fishers, boaters and other marine users may still have access to the lease area provided they do not disrupt aquaculture operations.
Kelp is very strong, but despite this kelp can be dislodged and break free if the ocean conditions are extreme enough; exactly as it does in the wild. Dislodged kelp will either wash up on the beach or be washed into deeper water, thereby trapping the stored carbon. The ocean rig designs are engineered to cater for 1-in-100-year storm events with the kelp at their maximum biomass. Using screw anchors, multiple lines are screwed into the sand floor in a catenary design to spread the load in different directions and these methods are very stable and have been proven over many decades. Consideration of how to avoid and manage dislodgement of infrastructure will be an important component of the planning approvals process.
Andrew, N (2022) Sea urchins have invaded Tasmania and Victoria, but we can’t work out what to do with them The Conversation https://theconversation.com/sea-urchins-have-invaded-tasmania-and-victoria-but-we-cant-work-out-what-to-do-with-them-194534
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Layton, C., et al. (2020). “Kelp Forest Restoration in Australia.” Frontiers in Marine Science 7. Kelp forests dominate the rocky coasts of temperate Australia and are the foundation of the Great Southern Reef. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.00074
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McClenachan, L. and Moulton, A. (2022) ‘Transitions from wild-caught fisheries to shellfish and seaweed aquaculture increase gender equity in Maine’, Marine Policy, 146, p. 105312. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105312
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RELATED NEWS
October 2023 Progress Update
A research workshop and information session was held in Bermagui NSW in late July with community, Indigenous rights holders and other marine estate users to understand what matters to them when it comes to growing the blue economy, and what is needed to address community sentiment and grow community support for regenerative aquaculture opportunities in the local area.
“Our role in this collaboration is to conduct research which will explore how communities feel about these new activities, and identify how these businesses can work with local residents to share the benefits of the developments and address any areas of concern,” Project Lead Dr Michelle Voyer.
Introduction to aquaculture in NSW
Aquaculture is a critical industry for Australia’s Blue Economy, with significant opportunities for growth. The National Aquaculture Strategy aims to double the current value of Australia’s aquaculture industry, and the National Marine Science Plan 2015-2025 highlights the importance of aquaculture in driving the development of Australia’s Blue Economy.
Within New South Wales (NSW) there are 3200 aquaculture leases over a total current area of about 4300 hectares. These are administered by the NSW Department of Primary Industries and employ many different techniques, all of which take place on selected sites. Aquaculture has been estimated to contribute over $220m and nearly 1800 jobs to regional economies in NSW.
There are many different types of aquaculture. These are often classified into two categories.
- Fed or intensive (or semi-intensive) aquaculture are types of aquaculture where food be is added to the production or there are other interventions in the growing process, such as water aeration. Common types of intensive aquaculture include fish and prawn farming.
- Non-intensive, feed free aquaculture is often referred to as regenerative aquaculture. This type of aquaculture allows the stock to grow on its own, using natural food sources and conditions, and is common for farming shellfish (such as oysters) and seaweed. The term regenerative refers to the potential of this type of farming to provide environmental benefits. For example, filter feeders can assist in improving water quality and seaweed farms can provide habitat for other marine species. Regenerative aquaculture farms may also contribute to carbon storage.
[Source 1: DPI]
TYPES OF REGENERATIVE AQUACULTURE
Seaweed farming
Seaweed aquaculture in Australia is a promising industry with a wide range of potential uses such as food, fertilisers, agricultural feed, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and bioplastics. Seaweed can be grown with minimal environmental impact and in fact can have many positive environmental benefits. Seaweed ocean farms require no addition of feed, freshwater or fertiliser and there is no waste from marine plants, making it one of the most sustainable forms of agriculture on the planet.
Seaweed farms consist of anchors, longlines and growlines, and look very similar to a mussel farm. Seaweed spores (collected from near the farm location) are grown in a hatchery on twine before being out-planted onto growlines. These lines are usually laid out approximately 1.5 km from the shore at sufficient depth to ensure the seaweed does not touch the bottom and to reduce the amount of biofouling. The substrate is often sandy as this is a good holding ground for moorings.
Mussel farming
In Australia, mussel farming is a relatively new venture undertaken in embayments of the southern states. A number of species are cultured around the world, the blue mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) is the only marine mussel species farmed in Australia. Although the blue mussel in Australia is similar to and shares the same scientific name with the one from southern Europe, it is native to Australia and has been found in ancient Aboriginal middens. [Source 5]
Wild caught and hatchery reared spat settle on special spat ropes and allowed to grow before being mechanically stripped from the ropes, graded and reseeded to culture rope. The time it takes for mussels to reach market size from spat varies between regions. Mussels grown on the NSW South Coast are renowned for their generous size and take a little over one year to grow. Mussels are filter-feeders and grow naturally on plankton circulated by the joining of warm water from the East Australian Current and nutrient rich cooler water from the Bass Strait. (http://southcoastmariculture.com.au/mariculture)
The infrastructure and methods associated with mussel farming are complementary to seaweed farming, therefore it is possible to co-locate these species within the one farm.
What future aquaculture is proposed for the NSW South Coast?
Currently the only form of aquaculture on the NSW South Coast is a healthy and vibrant oyster industry, as well as two existing mussel farms in Jervis Bay and Eden.
In NSW new aquaculture developments are assessed as State Significant Developments, meaning they need to undertake a range of rigorous environmental, social, cultural and technical assessments to gain approval. The nature and scope of these assessments is defined by a dedicated set of Secretary’s Environmental Assessment Requirements (SEARS) specific to each project.
At present SEARS have been issued for two businesses seeking to establish seaweed farms in three lease areas in Bermagui, Pambula and Eden (see map). An additional three leases have been identified as sites for future regenerative aquaculture businesses with plans for these sites still in under development.
Proponents
Sea Health Products
Sea Health Products is a family company based in Tilba which harvests seaweed that is washed up on local beaches. The seaweed is dried and processed into powder or granules that can be made into fresh organic products. While demand for kelp products is growing, supplies of kelp have declined. In response Sea Health have developed a proposal for two kelp farms in Bermagui (Haywards Beach) and Pambula (Merimbula Bay).
Bermagui
Pambula
AusKelp
Auskelp Pty Ltd seeks to create an environmentally positive and sustainable seaweed aquaculture industry located within the Bega Valley Shire. AusKelp Pty Ltd is wholly Australian owned and operated. Using the latest technology, research and expert advisors, Auskelp plans to develop commercial kelp farms in the Bega Valley Shire that create a new and innovative industry, while protecting the pristine Sapphire Coast. Auskelp Pty Ltd is seeking approval for the development of a 200-hectare seaweed aquaculture marine farm on aquaculture lease area within Disaster Bay, off Wonboyn.
Eden
Why develop regenerative aquaculture on the NSW South Coast?
Seaweed is a low-impact, carbon negative crop and can be used for wide variety of purposes from nutrient rich food, bio-fuel, methane-reducing food source for cattle, bio-plastic, and cosmetic and medical products. It is estimated that in Southern NSW Seaweed could generate $50M annual gross value of production, 500 jobs and improve water quality and provide habitat for marine life.
Co-locating seaweed with mussels has the potential to further enhance food security and grow a thriving blue economy.
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Sources
- https://www.agriculture.gov.au/agriculture-land/fisheries/aquaculture
- https://www.frdc.com.au/seaweed-aquaculture-australia
- https://www.australianseaweedinstitute.com.au/why-seaweed
- https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/aquaculture/about-aquaculture
- https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/aquaculture/publications/species-saltwater/blue-mussel-aquaculture-prospects
- https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/content/research/areas/aquaculture/outputs/2001/output-168
- https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/aquaculture/publications/oysters/oyster-industry-in-nsw
- https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/fisheries-research/aquaculture-research/molluscan-aquaculture
- https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/aquaculture/publications/oysters/industry-strategy
- https://www.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/major-projects/projects/seaweed-aquaculture-lease-disaster-bay-eden-1-0
- https://www.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/major-projects/projects/seaweed-farming-aquaculture-bermagui-and-pambulansw
This project was successful at securing funds from the NSW Government.
PROJECT PARTNERS
